By: Mona Kaddoura, MS, CCC-SLP, and Natalie Sfeir, MS, CCC-SLP
Have you ever thought to yourself, “Why don’t we understand each other; we are speaking the same language, aren’t we?” Believe it or not, this is a common question Arabic speakers ask themselves on a regular basis. If you think you are fluent in Arabic, think again! It is not uncommon for a native Arabic speaker to encounter language barriers within the same language; this can be attributed to diglossia. Diglossia is a phenomenon whereby two or more varieties of the same language exist side by side in the same speech community (Ferguson, 1959; Ferguson, 1996). Each is used for a specific purpose and in a distinct situation. Criticism can arise by certain members of the community if the appropriate language variety is not used in the appropriate setting. Therefore, it differs from the more familiar examples of regional dialects in Italian or Persian in which many speakers use their local dialect at home and within the community but use a more standard form when communicating more formally or with speakers from other regions (Farghaly & Shaalan, 2009).
Arabic, however, exhibits a true diglossic situation in which at least three varieties of the same language are used within a speech community and in confined situations (Farghaly, 2004). Classical Arabic is the language of religion and is used by Arabic speakers in their daily prayers, while Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), a more recent variety of Classical Arabic, is used by educated people in more formal settings such as in business, the media, and classrooms. With family, friends, and the community, people speak their own regional dialect, which varies considerably from region to region. These three varieties are available to every Arab on a daily basis. For example, on any given day an Arabic speaker will use Classical Arabic while reciting their daily prayers, MSA when listening to or reading the news, and their particular dialect at home with family or friends (Farghaly & Shaalan, 2009).
Arabic is the native language of approximately 300 million people worldwide and is an official language in 27 countries. Also, as the language of the Quran, it is the religious and liturgical language of all Muslims everywhere. Significantly, a local spoken variety of this language is spontaneously acquired by all native speakers as their mother tongue. This variety is known as Spoken (or Colloquial) Arabic, a collective term that refers to the whole range of Arabic vernaculars in numerous local dialects. These are generally classified into two regional clusters: Eastern and Western dialects. Eastern Arabic is spoken throughout the Fertile Crescent, in the Arabic-speaking regions of Asia, in Egypt, in the Sudan, and in partially Arabized parts of East Africa. Western Arabic is spoken in the region referred to as the Maghreb, including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, and Libya. The regional distinction between Eastern and Western Arabic coincides with contrasting linguistic differences of phonological, morphological, phonotactic, and lexical nature, pertaining most saliently to the inflection of the imperfect verb, syllable structure, and many items of lexicon (Saiegh-Haddad & Henkin-Roitfarb, 2014).
Chronologically, Classical Arabic represents the language spoken by the Arabs more than 14 centuries ago, while Modern Standard Arabic is an evolving variety of Arabic with constant borrowings and innovations proving that Arabic reinvents itself to meet the changing needs of its speakers (Farghaly & Shaalan, 2009).
As a natural language, Arabic has much in common with other languages like English. However, it is also unique in terms of its history, diglossic nature, internal structure, inseparable link with Islam, and the Arabic culture and identity (Farghaly & Shaalan, 2009).
What does this mean for the Arabic-speaking speech language pathologist (SLP)?
To start, Nadeen Moghrabi, MBA, MS, CCC-SLP, put it best: “Just because I speak Arabic does not mean I speak Arabic.” As native Arabic speakers, we are well aware of the complexity of dialects and diglossia within our own language, but it is imperative that we shed light on this complexity to non-Arabic speakers. I (Mona Kaddoura) was recently contacted by an outpatient clinic that specializes in bilingual services in Austin, Texas. They were interested in contracting my services as an Arabic-speaking SLP in order to evaluate and then provide teletherapy to an Arabic-speaking pediatric client. The first question I asked was from which country their Arabic client originated. My question came across as a little confusing, and I had to provide an explanation to the clinician as to why I was asking about Arabic dialect. If I had not asked, it was highly likely that the company would have relied on me to provide a quality evaluation and therapeutic services; meanwhile, there very well could have been a language barrier within the same language! That is precisely why it is so important for non-Arabic speakers to understand that follow-up questions are necessary. It is important to know how fluent the Arabic speaker is across dialects and forms of Arabic (i.e., Classical, MSA).
We interviewed two renowned Arabic-speaking speech language pathologists leading the way in the medical setting, Nesreen H. Alawami, MA, CCC-SLP, BCS-S, and Nadeen Moghrabi MBA, MS, CCC-SLP. Below is an abbreviated transcript that provides a brief snapshot their insights.
What is your language background/experience with Arabic (e.g., which dialect)?
Nasreen: “Oh, I codeswitch a lot. I change the words, trying to find the more common words. I’m switching because if I speak my dialect you won't understand a word I’m saying. I don’t have finesse when I speak Arabic; I can get my point across, but I don’t have finesse like I do with English. Being able to change the wording, it becomes facts. I tell my patients facts versus breaking it down a little bit easier in English.”
What’s the role of a liaison? Give me an example of a patient, which type of Arabic they spoke, and an instance in which you needed a liaison for that language encounter.
Nasreen: “I think English has a descriptive word for almost everything. And Arabic doesn’t; you describe. [For example, the word ‘chair’], you talk around/describe it versus [the word] ‘chair.’ There are five different kinds of it. I find myself having to interpret a lot more than the five words that were given [in an evaluation] because it's not linear. You can't just find a word for a word, and sometimes it’s odd, you have to describe what it is.”
Have you ever conducted a speech and language evaluation in Arabic with the help of an interpreter? In your experience [using an interpreter], are those individuals familiar with the different dialects they are able to manage?
Nadeen: “Some interpreters are better than others.”
Nasreen: “In this case, if I see there is miscommunication or a patient is getting frustrated, I will usually cut it short.”
What is the one thing you think a non-Arabic speaker should know when it comes to the Arabic language and/or culture? What one thing would you share with a non-Arabic speaker?
Nadeen: “Just because I speak Arabic does not mean I speak Arabic. Even within Lebanon, there are dialects, and I’m like, ‘That’s a different word.’ If someone asks me, ‘Hey, I have an Arabic-speaking patient,’ I ask where they are from and have to go get an interpreter. I think some people just get excited [that] you speak Arabic.”
You can find the full interview transcription here.
How can we then apply this awareness to our clinical practice?
Now that we realize that Arabic in itself is a very complex language, we know we need to ask more questions. We know there are many dialects within the language, and an Arabic speaker of one regional dialect may not be able to understand another Arabic speaker of a different regional dialect. We also know that despite the level of education, it is not practical to expect Arabic speakers to rely solely on classical Arabic or MSA to communicate with one another.
How do we ensure accurate interpretation for our clients, and, subsequently, how do we break down barriers within Arabic dialects?
- Awareness. Increasing awareness among both Arabic speakers and non-Arabic speakers is where we start. Regardless of whether or not you are a native speaker of the language, if you go into a clinical situation with the awareness that language barriers exist across dialects, you know there are additional questions to be asked. These questions are critical when requesting an interpreter and when interacting with the client and family members.
- Recognizing our limits. As native Arabic speakers, we need to be cognizant of our own limits. There is no shame in admitting that we cannot understand a different regional dialect of the same language. It has already been established that Arabic speakers encounter language barriers within their own language; therefore, being aware of our own limitations makes us better practitioners. In the event that we are not able to directly interpret for a client, we can seek assistance from an interpreter who speaks the same dialect while still being a key collaborator. Although we will not be the one directly interpreting, as a native speaker we have enough of a working knowledge of the language and phonotactics to be able to understand more than a non-Arabic speaker. This may aid us in catching a mistake or misinterpretation.
In summary, to quote Nesreen H. Alawami, “Arabic is not Arabic is not Arabic.” As long as we are mindful of this in our evaluation and practices, we are already one step ahead in ensuring the provision of the best possible and quality-driven speech services for our clients and families.
For additional information, you can visit these resources:
References
Al-Jumaili A., Ahmed K., & Koch D. (2020). Barriers to Healthcare Access for Arabic-speaking Population in an English-speaking country. Pharmacy Practice,18(2), 1809.
Basma, D., Gibbons, M., & Kronick, R. (2020). Examining Perceived Multicultural Counseling Competence and Negative Attitudes Toward the Arabic American Population. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 48.
Farghaly, A. (2004). A Case for Inter-Arabic Grammar. Brill. 10.1163/9789047405085_004
Farghaly A. & Shaalan K. (2009). Arabic Natural Language Processing: Challenges and Solutions. Asian Language Information Processing, 8(4).
Ferguson, C. (1959). Diglossia. WORD, 15(2), 325-40.
Ferguson, C. (1996). Understanding Arabic: Essays in Contemporary Arabic Linguistics in Honor of El-Said Badawi. In A. E. Elgibali (Eds.), Epilogue: Diglossia Revisited (pp. 49-67). Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
Saiegh-Haddad E. & Henkin-Roitfarb, R. (2014). Handbook of Arabic Literacy: The Structure of Arabic Language and Orthography. 10.1007/978-94-017-8545-7_1
About the Authors
Mona Kaddoura, MS, CCC-SLP, is a first-generation daughter of Palestinian immigrants from Lebanon serving as a bilingual SLP in an elementary school. She obtained her Master of Science from Texas Woman’s University, obtaining a certificate as a bilingual SLP. As the firstborn, Kaddoura was taught Arabic before any other language. Her parents speak the Palestinian-Lebanese dialect, which is what she was taught and utilizes to communicate. She also resided in Beirut, Lebanon, for a year and learned Modern Standard Arabic in school as a second language. She can read and write at an elementary level. Kaddoura uses her Arabic-speaking skills with family, within her community, and professionally when needed.
Natalie Sfeir, MS, CCC-SLP, is a first-generation Lebanese-American serving as an acute care SLP. Sfeir obtained her Master of Science from the University of Texas at Austin, obtaining a multicultural certification. Sfeir attributes her conversational proficiency in Levantine Arabic to a familial environment immersed in code-switching between Levantine Arabic and English. Sfeir continues to speak Arabic in family settings and has firsthand experience navigating complex medical environments when Arabic dialectical differences occur.
Acknowledgements
The CLD Committee would like to thank Nesreen H. Alawami, MA, CCC-SLP, BCS-S, for her valuable insights and contributions to this article. We would also like to thank Nadeen Moghrabi MBA, MS CCC-SLP, for her introspective insights and sharing her firsthand experiences with us.
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